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Afghan Civil War (1793–1823)

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Afghan Civil War (1793–1823)

Coronation of Zaman Shah Durrani in 1793 which created a civil war driven by a succession crisis
Date20 May 1793 – March 1823
Location
Durrani Empire (spillover into Kalat)
Result

Barakzai victory

Territorial
changes

Collapse of the Durrani Empire

  • Herat and Kandahar created as separate independent states from the Durrani Empire
  • Kabul succeeds the Durrani Empire
Belligerents
Khanate of Kalat (from 1794)
Afsharid Iran (until 1796)
Supported by:
British Empire (from 1809)
Khanate of Kalat (until 1794)
Talpur Sindh
Others
Commanders and leaders
Zaman Shah Durrani (POW)
Shuja Shah Durrani (POW)
Qaisar Shah Durrani Turncoat
Abbas Shah Durrani Executed
Mahmud Khan Ahmadzai
Shahrokh Shah
Nader Mirza Afshar
Zaman Shah:
Shuja Shah:
Abbas Shah:
 Humayun Shah Durrani (POW)
Mahmud Shah Durrani (POW)
Firuz Shah Durrani (POW)
Qaisar Shah Durrani (AWOL)
Kamran Shah Durrani (WIA)
Nasir Khan Ahmadzai
Behram Khan Ahmadzai
Fateh Ali Khan Talpur
Humayun Shah:
Mahmud Shah:
 Ali Shah Durrani X
Ayub Shah Durrani Surrendered
Ismail Mirza Durrani †
Dost Mohammad Khan (POW)
Mohammad Azim Khan #
Habibullah Khan
Kandahar Sardars:
Peshawar Sardars:
Others
Casualties and losses
500,000+ total casualties including civilians

The Afghan Civil War (1793–1823)[a] was a dynastic civil war and a period of internal conflict within the Durrani Empire following Timur Shah Durrani's death, where power was contested among his sons after the ascension of Zaman Shah Durrani in 1793. This conflict ultimately ended with the deposition of the last Durrani ruler Ayub Shah Durrani by the Barakzais in 1823.

Zaman Shah would be faced with criticism by his brothers who would not recognize his succession to the throne, in which Timur Shah Durrani's successors governed so ineptly during a period of profound unrest that within years of his death, the Durrani Empire was embroiled in civil war. By 1818, the Durrani Empire controlled little more than Kabul and its surrounding territory within a 160-kilometer radius. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah Durrani fell to others in this half century.

Background

[edit]
Portrait of Ahmad Shah Durrani, c. 1757

Founding of the Durrani Empire

[edit]

The Durrani Empire was founded by Ahmad Khan Abdali in July 1747, the year that marked the definitive appearance of an Afghan political entity independent of both the Persian and Mughal empires. A jirga was concluded in the gathering site of Sher-i Surkh in Old Kandahar, with Ahmad Khan being selected as the new leader of the Afghans after Sabir Shah placed wheat or barley sheaves in Ahmad Khan's turban. Ahmad Shah then bore the epithet "King, Pearl of the Pearls",[b][1][2] thus the Durrani dynasty was founded. Ahmad Khan Abdali was then known as "Ahmad Shah Durrani", after re-naming the Abdali tribe into "Durrani", based on his bestowed title, which was the Persian word for "pearl".[3][4]

However, Ahmad Shah's accession was disputed by Hajji Jamal Khan, chief of the Barakzai tribe. The Barakzais were the most powerful clan of the Abdalis centered in the Kandahar and Helmand regions. The dispute over accession continued until an agreement was made where Jamal Khan would submit to Ahmad Shah as king, while Ahmad Shah would appoint Jamal Khan and his descendants as viziers.[5] Despite being younger than the other contenders, Ahmad Shah had several overriding factors in his favor. He belonged to a respectable family of political background, especially since his father Mohammad Zaman Khan was the Sultan of Herat.[6][7]

Succession crisis

[edit]
Main article: Afghan succession crisis of 1772
Depiction of Timur Shah Durrani

In Afghan society, succession crisis was a common and a violent consequence of a king's death, especially when one of the king's sons was a primary contender for the throne.[8] It would mainly be driven by jealousy over the selected son who was honored to be a successor, and often due to the absence of an accepted system of primogeniture, which often led to fierce rivalries.[9] Each prince would backed by different factions and tribes, to which they would continuously vie for power while creating internal strife and instability, as the sons often sought to gain the loyalty of influential tribal leaders, military commanders and other key figures.[10]

Before his death, Ahmad Shah chose his younger son, Timur Mirza Durrani, to succeed him, passing over his eldest son, Sulaiman Mirza Durrani. The announcement led to an internal conflict between factions loyal to Sulaiman and Timur. Ahmad Shah dismissed the faction of Sulaiman, proclaiming Timur far more capable than Sulaiman. However, Timur was left as governor at Herat, allowing the faction of Sulaiman to grow their influence in the Durrani capital of Kandahar. Upon Ahmad Shah's death, the faction of Sulaiman refused the throne to Timur, and gave it to Sulaiman, triggering a short civil war. Timur emerged victorious without battle, as support for Sulaiman had dissipated, and he fled to India.[11] Later during the reign of Timur, his brother Sikander would become the main focus of a conspiracy to succeed to the Durrani throne after a plot on Timur's life that nearly succeeded in Peshawar.[12][13] Timur Shah ascended to the throne of the Durrani Empire in November 1772 with Sulaiman Mirza giving up his throne, and ruled for more than 20 years until his death.[14] After Timur Shah's death, Zaman Mirza Durrani ascended to the throne and assumed the title of Shah, succeeding his father Timur Shah Durrani in being Shah of the Durrani Empire.

Civil war

[edit]

Background

[edit]

Zaman Shah Durrani's ascension to the throne was opposed by many of his brothers, among whom were Humayun Mirza Durrani and Mahmud Mirza Durrani, who had their regional zones of influence in Kandahar and in Herat respectively. To deal with these claims over succession, an election was held in the summer capital of Kabul over who the next Durrani ruler would be. Abbas Mirza Durrani was a running candidate, but would have taken the vote if the election was held right after Timur Shah Durrani's death.

However with the given time, Barakzai tribal leaders and Zaman Shah's influence had by then grew, allowing him to receive the popular vote and become the ruler, specifically supported by the chief of the Barakzais, Payandah Khan, who was the son of Hajji Jamal Khan.[15] Having now been declared king of the Durrani Empire and recognized by all but his brothers, he led his brothers to the Durrani summer capital of Kabul, where he imprisoned his opposing brothers. He implicated a diet to starve his brothers, with a diet of two to three ounces of bread each day, with the effect, the brothers gave in on the sixth day, where they had recognized Zaman Shah as king of the Durrani Empire. The princes were then freed but kept under surveillance in the Bala Hissar palace.[15]

During this time, the Durrani Empire lost significant territory, as the Kunduz Khanate and Saighan became independent which later fell under Bukharan suzerainty, while the Khozeimeh Amirdom and the Qara Bayat Amirdom also gained independence, only to later fall under Qajar suzerainty. Even though the Sikhs have been defeated in Multan, the Durrani Empire had clear signs of being dragged into a downfall as it was ruled ineptly, the decade of prolonged sieges had drained the empire's financial resources.[16]

Battle of Kandahar

[edit]

Not abiding by the elections that took place in Kabul, Durrani tribal leaders had rebelled in Kandahar and installed Humayun Shah Durrani as king, while getting Mahmud Mirza and Firuz Mirza in Herat to submit to him. Zaman Shah sent his full brother Shuja Mirza Durrani, alongside with Payandah Khan to deal with this rebellion, and defeated Humayun Shah and the Durrani rebels near Qalat. When Mahmud Mirza and Firuz Mirza heard of the fall of Kandahar, they shifted their allegiance to Zaman Shah, who honored his pledge to his father and allowed them to remain governors of Herat.

Zaman Shah, wanting to further secure his throne from the growing popularity of Mahmud Mirza in Herat and older brother Humayun Shah in Kandahar, wanted to mobilize his army to march on Kandahar to prevent them uniting against his rule. Humayun Shah, disregarded the advice to stay in defense within Kandahar's great walls and wait for Mahmud Shah's reinforcements to arrive from Herat, and marched out to meet Zaman Shah's army and was defeated at Qalat. Humayun Shah was forced to flee to Balochistan, being placed under house arrest by Nasir Khan Ahmadzai, to which he later escaped. With his victory, Zaman Shah secured Kandahar.[17]

Before being able to move against Mahmud Mirza in Herat, he had received news of possible rebellion on the outer provinces of the empire, and that his presence was urgently required in Kabul. He signed a truce with Mahmud Mirza and returned to Kabul as a result.[18]

Return to Kabul

[edit]

Having then recaptured Kandahar, Zaman Shah saw his father's implicated systems as "too lenient", to which every person correlating to any influence within the Durrani Empire was watched upon. Zaman Shah also ordered the execution of anybody who opposed him, often leading to massacres within the city to rout out small groups of resistance and opposition.[19] The same Barakzai tribal leaders, who had led Zaman Shah in effort to consolidate his holdings and capture the throne were deprived of all power, with other chiefs also being arrested, or put to death. It only grew worse for Zaman Shah as revolts broke out in Kashmir and Punjab, and Sindh had severed itself of influence and correlation to the Durrani Empire, while the Uzbeks had crossed the Oxus.[19]

Spillover into Kalat

[edit]

Following the death of Nasir Khan Ahmadzai in 1794, a short civil war was triggered in the Khanate of Kalat between Mahmud Khan Ahmadzai and his cousin Behram Khan Ahmadzai. Zaman Shah Durrani then dispatched Sher Mohammad Khan with a military force in response to appeals from Mahmud Khan. After defeating the usurpers at Kalat, the Afghan Army restored Mahmud Khan to power and secured the region, while bringing him to Kabul to meet the Shah, and was given a force of 6,000 Baloch cavalry in return.[20]

Second Battle of Kandahar

[edit]

Zaman Shah marched to the winter capital of Peshawar, and heard the news of his brother Humayun Shah seizing Kandahar with the assistance of the Talpurs of Sindh. He turned from Peshawar to meet him at Kandahar, to which Humayun was forced to flee again after being betrayed by the Afghans in Kandahar, but this time to Sindh. He then attempted to escape to Herat in the domain of his brother Mahmud Shah, to which he was captured with a detachment of horses and ordered by Zaman Shah to be blinded, making sure Kandahar wouldn't be under threat from him once again.[21][22]

March to Sindh

[edit]

Zaman Shah, having been forced to turn his expedition because of the Talpurs and enraged with the idea of reintegrating the province into the Durrani Empire, had marched on Sindh. Upon his arrival at Sindh, he heard the news of his brother Mahmud Shah declaring himself king while the latter had been marching on Kandahar. Zaman Shah had then spared the Talpur but under the conditions that they would tribute to the Durrani Empire once again, and was met with approval by the Talpur chief, Fateh Ali Khan Talpur. With the Talpurs dealt with, he returned to Kandahar to deal with his brother Mahmud Shah.[23]

Battle of Ghorak

[edit]

After dealing with the Talpurs, Zaman Shah had marched back to Kandahar to prevent Mahmud Shah from seizing the city. Mahmud Shah, having heard the news of his brother returning had set up position in the Band-i Siyah range, remaining there until he heard further news of Zaman Shah's movements. Mahmud Shah had heard his brother, Zaman Shah, was but three marches away from him after leaving Kandahar, as a result he broke up his armies and moved to the plains, meeting Zaman Shah's army at Ghorak. The two armies had fought, with the fight seemingly a close victory for Mahmud Shah initially, however his men finally gave way, leading to the decisive victory for Zaman Shah. Mahmud Shah had first fled to Farah, then moving to Herat, where by inciting the Uzbeks to attack had made Mahmud Shah pardoned by Zaman Shah, allowing Mahmud Shah to continue his affairs in government.[24]

Capture of Lahore

[edit]

After reconciling with Mahmud Shah, Zaman Shah had coerced the Uzbeks into a treaty after they heard of Mahmud Shah's defeat in Ghorak, whereas Kashmir was also put down by forces under Zaman Shah. Now having consolidated his realm, Zaman Shah, wanting to remake his grandfather's conquests in India had mobilized in Peshawar, planning to invade Punjab. In November 1796, Zaman Shah had readied his army and was prepared to march to Punjab, however there were pressing issues throughout the empire that always needed him, when he marched on Punjab, and had just captured Lahore.[20]

Persian invasion

[edit]

Intelligence in Kabul had notified Zaman Shah about a Persian invasion of the Durrani Empire led by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, and had taken Mashhad on 14 May 1797[25] which was ruled by the Afsharid dynasty who were vassals of the Durrani Empire. As a result, Zaman Shah was forced to withdraw from his invasion of India and prepare an army to invade Mashhad. However, due to Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's assassination on 17 June 1797, Nader Mirza Afshar had resumed control and restored his allegiance to the Durrani throne.[26]

Siege of Herat

[edit]

Zaman Shah, seeing Mahmud Shah as a future threat if the Persians had ever invaded again, broke the reconciliation and decided to try and retake Herat and strip Mahmud of his administrative titles. Zaman Shah then met Mahmud at a battle near Grishk, and defeated Mahmud Shah, which allowed him to besiege Herat. The city held out and eventually, Mahmud Shah's mother had broken a deal between the two brothers. The terms of which would be Zaman Shah's kingship would be recognized in exchange for keeping his governorship of Herat. Kamran Mirza Durrani, the son of Mahmud Shah, noticing Zaman Shah leaving back to Helmand, led the army of the city in pursuit. Once Kamran Mirza had left, Qilij Khan, the governor of Herat in place for Kamran, had led a rebellion and opened the gates to Zaman Shah. Mahmud Shah and Kamran had then fled to Tehran.[27]

Battle of Herat

[edit]

With the Persian situation having blown over, Zaman Shah had returned to Peshawar to invade Punjab again, and advanced as far as Lahore while planning to further invade into India. Zaman Shah had then heard the news that Mahmud Shah was in revolt and was planning to march on Kandahar once again. Zaman Shah, annoyed, and having enough of these constant issues had brought over one of Mahmud Shah's chief generals, occupied Herat, and forced him to flee to Persia once again.[28]

Second Persian invasion

[edit]

Having now dealt with Mahmud Shah, Zaman Shah had resumed his plans for invading India, he led his armies to Peshawar, and had advanced as far as Lahore once again. Zaman Shah was recalled by his intelligence, that the Persians led by Fath-Ali Shah Qajar were threatening the Afghan Realm once again. This had forced Zaman Shah to withdraw to Peshawar and then Herat. The action that had prompted the Qajars to threaten the Durranis was provoked by the East India Company of the British Empire, where the East India company had heard of Zaman Shah's attempts to repeat his father's success in India. However, despite the Persian invasion, its attempted were foiled as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar had advanced as far as Sabzawar, and then withdrew. Though the invasion had failed, it had distracted Zaman Shah and forced him to hole in Kandahar for the winter.[29]

First Bukharan invasion

[edit]

Taking advantage of the civil war, the Bukharans led by Shah Murad occupied Aqcha after defeating Mohammad Khan Qizilbash, imprisoning him and other Qizilbash soldiers. The surviving soldiers retreated to the Balkh citadel and were then chased by the Bukharans, but couldn't take the citadel within the four-month siege, especially after executing the imprisoned Qizilbash commander while sending multiple failed threats. Eventually, Shah Murad admitted defeat and sent envoys to Kabul to negotiate a truce, which led the Bukharans to withdraw back across the Oxus.[17]

Second Battle of Herat

[edit]

Mahmud Shah, having seen Zaman Shah distracted, had mobilized a force of over 10,000 men from the outer lying provinces of Persia, and had then led these forces to Herat, where Zaman Shah, having heard of the news had also led his armies to march to Herat. However, Mahmud Shah's allies had seen how he failed against Zaman Shah before, as a result they had little confidence and low morale for the circumstances he was facing. Zaman Shah, seeing this had capitalized on this by creating doubts and fights in Mahmud Shah's camp. With this, Zaman Shah had broken Mahmud Shah's morale and his allies belief to fight, as a result, Mahmud Shah had then fled to Khiva, and then the court of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, where he led a petition to depose his brother, Zaman Shah.[30] Mahmud Shah had attempted to seek help from Persia to invade the Durrani Empire to topple Zaman Shah's regime, however, nobody sought to help him. As a result, Mahmud Shah, retired to Persia.[30]

Massacre of Barakzai chiefs

[edit]

As Zaman Shah Durrani was at his zenith of power, the Durrani Empire ushered through an era of prosperity not seen for a while, but this slowly met its end as Fath Allah Khan accused the Barakzai chiefs of planning to topple Zaman Shah Durrani. He also added that they committed further treason by laying the constituent articles that Zaman Shah should be overthrown and replaced by his brother Shuja Mirza Durrani, and had also believed that the Durrani crown should be elective with chiefs voting in, while the kings who have been proven unworthy can be deposed by the chiefs. Fath Allah Khan invited the Barakzai chiefs to the palace separately as a scheme to secretly execute them, and one of his victims was Payandah Khan, the same chief that helped Zaman Shah to ascend to the Durrani throne. After executing them, Fath Allah Khan kept ordering the complete capture of all Barakzai chiefs, most prominently Payandah Khan's eldest son Fateh Ali Khan.[31]

Return of Mahmud Shah

[edit]

The sons of Payandah Khan then fled to Persia and pledged allegiance to Mahmud Shah Durrani which led to the latter's rise in popularity after a long time and an era of retiring. Mahmud Shah's army then marched to Farah while he led speeches and rallies against Zaman Shah, announcing his intention to become king while exposing the tyrannies of Zaman Shah and Fath Allah Khan. With this, Mahmud Shah gained the large support of the Barakzai and Popalzai tribes while he marched on Kandahar.

Mahmud Shah had begun sieging the city, and the city garrison held fierce for 42 days. However, on the 43rd day, Fateh Ali Khan had managed to gain the support of two additional tribal chiefs in Kandahar, and the city finally fell to Mahmud Shah's forces. Zaman Shah, unaware of what had happened at Kandahar, had been focused on Persia's movements. After receiving intelligence, he shifted his focus on what the Barakzais might do next in Kabul. Zaman Shah left most of his forces with his brother Shuja Mirza Durrani in Peshawar.

Deposition of Zaman Shah

[edit]

Zaman Shah, sensing his weakened position, had retreated to Jalalabad and had attempted to raise a large army, but only rallied around 400 artillerymen and 200 cavalrymen. He marched to a fort near the Lataband Pass, where he appealed to the Afghans and tried to rally more support, with many partisan fighters flocking to his support, most notably Ahmad Khan Noorzai, and Zaman Shah's force numbered around 30,000. Zaman Shah was ready and marched ahead to meet Mahmud Shah in battle, to which the two armies met in Zabul. Ahmad Khan, who led the advance of Zaman Shah's army, had flocked and deserted to Mahmud Shah's army. Zaman Shah was forced to flee to a fort near the Lataband Pass, and also heard the news that Mahmud Shah had captured Kabul.[32]

Mahmud Shah had led efforts to imprison Zaman Shah and sent the latter multiple threats. Zaman Shah, feeling helpless, resigned to his fate and hid his jewels including the Koh-i-Noor, Daria-i-Noor and the Timur Ruby. Zaman Shah was then imprisoned and blinded by Asad Khan, a surgeon ordered by Mahmud Shah.[33] Zaman Shah eventually escaped from Kabul and sought refuge at Rawalpindi, where he was met by Ranjit Singh, who gave him a house to stay in, but later due to his safety concerns, Ranjit Singh welcomed him to stay in Lahore, with a monthly allowance of 1,500 rupees.[34]

Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani

[edit]

Ghilji rebellion (1801–1802)

[edit]
Main article: Ghilji rebellion (1801)

Resenting their subjugation to Durrani rule in their own domains and recalling their legacy at Isfahan, the Hotak and Tokhi tribes of the Ghilji tribal confederacy rebelled against Mahmud Shah Durrani in 1801. The internal instability within the Durrani Empire followed by the rivalry between Mahmud Shah and Shuja Shah provided an opening for the Ghilji rebels to attempt a power bid, and rapidly gained strength in Kandahar, marched toward Ghazni, and defeated its governor in open battle, but could not capture the Ghazni citadel.[35] The Ghilji rebels then boldly advanced into the Durrani summer capital of Kabul.[36]

Mahmud Shah's only available general, Sher Mohammad Khan, was previously imprisoned for treason, but was then freed since Mahmud Shah did not dare to leave Kabul. Sher Mohammad then lead the Qizilbash, and defeated the Ghilji rebels with artillery fire. Before being able to siege Kabul, the Ghiljis were plundering villages on their march, and gave Sher Mohammad time to position soldiers while defending the walls of Kabul which was then successful. After four more battles, the Ghilji rebels were finally overthrown completely.[37]

Revolts of 1802

[edit]

An uprising was initiated by the Uzbeks of Balkh, but fled across the Oxus after the uprising was quickly suppressed by Mahmud Shah Durrani, followed by another failed uprising by the tribesmen of Khyber who rose in favor of Zaman Shah's brother and ally Shuja Shah Durrani.[36]

1803 anti-Shia riots in Kabul

[edit]
Main article: 1803 anti-Shia riots in Kabul

Triggered by the fall of Mashhad to the Persians in 1803, the Sunni factions of Kabul led by clerics used the loss as an advantage to target the Qizilbash, who were mainly Shia, and were always disliked by the native Afghans as they were considered "foreign".[38] Sher Mohammad Khan Bamizai rallied Kabul’s Sunni clergy by creating an anti-Shia coalition by aligning with Sayyid Mir Ahmad Agha, known to his followers as Khwaja Khanji, head preacher of the Pul-e Khishti Mosque and custodian of the Ashiqan wa Arifan shrine.[39]

As Mahmud Shah hid inside the Bala Hissar instead of cracking down on rioters, the anti-Shia coalition led by Sher Mohammad Khan and Khwaja Khanji pulled in massive tribal reinforcements that launched repetitive attacks while ringing Chindawol, which included several thousand mobs, 20,000 men from Kohistan, Logar, and Tagab, as well as several thousand Ghilji and Safi tribesmen.[39] The Qizilbash Army's fortified mahallah had thick walls, elevated firing positions, and arms stockpiled. Well-aimed volleys cut down hundreds of attackers. The besiegers pushed artillery and sharpshooters onto the Sher Darwaza heights overlooking the quarter, turning the fight into a grinding siege, as the clerics mobilized more fighters and launched diversionary attacks against both Chindawol and the Bala Hissar. Fateh Ali Khan, returning from the south with 10,000 Hazara troops, finally broke the stalemate by backing the Qizilbash defenders, scattering the mobs and forcing the tribal levies to retreat. The standoff dragged on for nearly a month, with over 400 people dying.[40]

The aftermath of the riots resulted in weakening of Mahmud Shah's authority and his slow decline to which Sher Mohammad Khan regrouped with Mirwais and Ahmad Khan Noorzai, after accusing Mahmud Shah of "siding with heretics". Sher Mohammad went to Peshawar and offered to help Shuja Shah Durrani's legitimacy by deposing Mahmud Shah, in return to be vizier. Upon the acceptance of Shuja Shah, they defeated Mahmud Shah with the help of many army defectors and Khwaja Khanji's supporters, marching on Kabul on 12 July 1803.[41]

Reign of Shuja Shah Durrani

[edit]

Shuja Shah Durrani, being the governor of Herat and Peshawar from 1798 to 1801, proclaimed himself as king of Afghanistan after the deposition of his brother Zaman Shah Durrani on October 1801, but only properly ascended to the throne on 13 July 1803 after overthrowing Mahmud Shah Durrani who overthrew the latter.[42] After coming to power in 1803, Zaman Shah Durrani was freed from prison, and Mahmud Shah Durrani took over his place, but was not blinded.[43] Moreover, Shuja Shah ended the blood feud with the Barakzai family and also forgave them. To create an alliance with them, he married their sister Wafa Begum.[44][45]

Instigations and civil unrest

[edit]

With the intention of asserting his suzerainty, Shuja Shah marched to Sindh and Kashmir through way of Peshawar alongside 30,000 men. However, Shuja Shah quickly returned to Kandahar and defeated his rebellious nephew Qaisar Mirza Durrani, the son of former king Zaman Shah Durrani, who was instigated into challenging the throne by Fateh Ali Khan, and whom Shuja Shah had appointed as the Governor of Kandahar following his installation to the throne. Qaisar Mirza was then pardoned, and was pardoned again after he rebelled again, but swore loyalty and cut contact with Fateh Khan, and was re-installed as the Governor of Kandahar.[46][47]

As Fateh Ali Khan failed to persuade Qaisar Mirza Durrani into rebelling, he turned to the ruler of Herat, Firuz Mirza Durrani, to rebel. However, Firuz Mirza aligned himself with Shuja Shah Durrani after being offered the governorship of Herat on terms of semi-independence. Freed from trouble, Shuja Shah Durrani marched into Sindh and received tribute, and headed to Peshawar in April 1805.[48]

In 1808, Shuja Shah Durrani faced rebellion from his vizier Sher Mohammad Khan, who occupied Peshawar and proclaimed Qaizar Mirza Durrani as king. Shuja Shah immediately defeated the rebels, leaving Sher Mohammad killed in the process, while Qaisar Mirza was captured and pardoned for the third time. Shuja Shah then went to Kandahar to defeat the former king Mahmud Shah Durrani towards the end of 1808.[48]

British mission to Peshawar

[edit]

In 1809, Shuja Shah Durrani allied the Durrani Empire with Britain, as a means of defending against an invasion of Afghanistan and Punjab by France.[49][50] In June 1809, a British diplomatic mission was sent to the Durrani Empire, by the terms of not allowing any Frenchman or other Europeans to enter Afghanistan, which at the time was to the British a remote and mysterious part of Asia.[51]

Second reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani

[edit]

Battle of Nimla

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Nimla (1809)

On 29 June 1809,[52] Shuja Shah Durrani was overthrown by his predecessor Mahmud Shah Durrani in the Battle of Nimla,[53] and went into exile in the Punjab, where he was captured by Jahandad Khan Bamizai and imprisoned at Attock in 1812, and then taken to Kashmir by Ata Mohammad Khan.[54] When Mahmud Shah's vizier Fateh Ali Khan invaded Kashmir alongside Ranjit Singh's army, Shuja chose to leave with the Sikh army. He stayed in Lahore from 1813 to 1814. During his time in India, Shuja was imprisoned and forced to give up the Timur Ruby, Koh-i-Noor, and the sister diamond Daria-i-Noor to Ranjit Singh.[55] He escaped from Ranjit's detention at the Mubarak Haveli Lahore for Ludhiana and the East India Company.[56]

Administrative reorganization

[edit]

Following Mahmud Shah Durrani's restoration, he re-appointed Fateh Ali Khan as Prime Minister, and deposed many key governors and personal enemies, while appointing the latter's uterine brothers as governors among different regions:[57][58]

Being king of the Durrani Empire, Mahmud Shah Durrani passed his kingship of Herat to his brother Firuz Mirza Durrani, who ruled Herat as a semi-independent state.[59]

Revolt of Khwaja Khanji

[edit]

Mahmud Shah Durrani's alliance with the Sikhs to recapture Kashmir antagonized the Sunni factions of Kabul led by Khwaja Khanji, leading to Sayyid Ata and Sayyid Ashraf to rebel and place Abbas Mirza Durrani on the throne. Fateh Ali Khan paused his campaigns in Kashmir and Attock, and went back to the Durrani winter capital of Peshawar alongside Mahmud Shah to depose the newly-installed usurper king Abbas Shah. All ringleaders were then executed by being crushed by an elephant, except for Khwaja Khanji who managed to escape.[57]

Second Bukharan invasion

[edit]

The civil war in the Durrani Empire gave the empire's enemies many advantages and encouraged them to assert authority in unsupervised lands. On the Islamic date of Safar in 1233 (adjacent to late 1817 or early 1818), the Emir of Bukhara, Haydar bin Shahmurad, occupied the cities of Aqcha and Balkh, and expelled their Durrani governors, in an attempt to restore Bukharan influence in the Balkh region.[60]

Siege of Multan (1818)

[edit]
Main article: Siege of Multan (1818)

On 12 March 1818, the first maharaja of the Sikh Empire and the former deputy of Lahore under Zaman Shah Durrani,[61] Ranjit Singh, also took advantage of the civil war and forced the Durrani governor of Multan, Muzaffar Khan Sadozai to accept Sikh suzerainty.[60] Following Muzaffar Khan's refusal, the Sikh army commanded by French and Italian officers, marched on Multan on 2 June 1818, after plundering the towns of Muzaffarabad and Shujabad, making the siege of Multan last 82 days. Multan Fort finally fell on 2 June 1818, and Muzaffar Khan was killed alongside his five sons and one daughter who fought to defend Multan until their last stand.[62]

Assassination of Fateh Ali Khan

[edit]

In August 1818,[63] Fateh Ali Khan was assassinated,[58] but the way Fateh was assassinated and the reasoning behind his assassination is contested among various accounts. Despite reasoning differing among accounts, most historians mutually agree that Fateh Ali Khan was killed by the Durranis, and this led to an uprising initiated by the Barakzai half-brothers, who were united once again:

According to Lee, Fateh Ali Khan was deceived by Kamran Mirza Durrani who had mustered a substantial army by his side, claiming he was coming to invite Fateh to a morning meal with honor and kindness, and to be congratulated by the king for his victory over Persia. Regardless of his advisers warning him against attending, Fateh attended and found all of his sworn enemies. Nonetheless, Fateh participated in the celebration and began eating with the guests. However, as it progressed, the different enemies began berating him with insults and informing him of the crimes his family had committed. As Fateh had enough, he rose in anger and wished to leave, but was grabbed and pinned to the tablecloth. With this, Ata Muhammad Khan then blinded Fateh with his dagger. Fateh was then imprisoned, and in the following days, his eyes were removed.[64] Lee had stated that this may have happened due to Fateh Ali Khan deposing Firuz Mirza Durrani from ruling Herat, pillaged the city and did acts of atrocities once they entered the royal harem alongside the former's uterine brother Dost Mohammad Khan. This then angered Mahmud Shah Durrani who ordered Kamran to capture Herat once again, and to punish Fateh Ali Khan.[65]

According to Dalrymple, Fateh was invited to a party in the royal garden outside the fortress of Herat. Fateh Khan and some of his brothers attended, and they became intoxicated after drinking much wine. Kamran then capitalized off of this, and having planned for this to happen, the other guests of the event tied up Fateh and blinded him. Fateh Khan was then tortured, with a scalping occurring.[66]

According to Ferrier, Mahmud Shah Durrani decided to dispose of Fateh Ali Khan in fear of a massive Persian invasion, as ordered by Fath-Ali Shah Qajar,[67] and mentioned to be blinded, imprisoned and finally cut to pieces, according to Kaye.[68]

Deposition of the Durranis

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Reign of Ali Shah Durrani

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Following Fateh Ali Khan's execution by Kamran Mirza Durrani, a vendetta was triggered between the Durranis and the Barakzais, leading to a national uprising, all while the headship of the Barakzai family was passed on to Fateh Khan's younger uterine brother Mohammad Azim Khan. The Dil Brothers led by Sher Dil Khan captured Kandahar and established their own principality.[69][70]

Azim Khan sought an alliance with the former king Shuja Shah Durrani in an attempt to enlist support for his cause and to overthrow Mahmud Shah Durrani, but demanded absolute power, so Azim Khan turned to another one of Timur Shah Durrani's sons, Ayub Mirza Durrani.[71][72] However, Dost Mohammad Khan then betrayed Azim Khan and installed Ali Shah Durrani onto the throne.[60][73]

This angered Azim Khan, making him pause his campaigns against the Sikhs, and to march against his uterine brother Dost Mohammad Khan in Kabul, in which Dost Mohammad then retreated to Ghazni. Azim Khan decided to stay in Kabul, and appointed his younger brother Yar Mohammad Khan as governor of Peshawar.[60][73]

With the Barakzais having power over the Afghan army, treasury and administration, their Durrani puppets would remain heads of state to represent the old Durrani legitimacy of Ahmad Shah Durrani's lineage.[69][74] Ali Shah's reign was short-lived as he was overthrown by his brother Ayub Mirza months later, after being strangled by the latter's son Ismail Mirza Durrani on December 1818, on the orders of Azim Khan.[60]

Reign of Ayub Shah Durrani

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Ayub Shah Durrani then ascended to the throne, following the assassination of Ali Shah Durrani.[60] The Afghan defeat at Shopian[75] and the flight of Azim Khan to Jalalabad after the Battle of Nowshera[76] exposed military weakness under the Barakzais,[77] and undermined Azim Khan's authority, following a successful Sikh siege that resulted in the capture of the Peshawar valley, and the capture of the Durrani winter capital of Peshawar.[78] Being entirely dependent on Azim Khan, Ayub Shah Durrani had no real authority nor did he have any support among the Barakzai brothers,[35] to which he lost his main source of support, after Azim Khan left his son Habibullah Khan as the new vizier after succumbing to cholera.[79]

The lack of support and the redundancy of the Durrani heads of state allowed the Barakzais to plot against Ayub Shah Durrani. Habibullah Khan feared the rivalry of Ismail Mirza Durrani and called the Kandahar Sardars for assistance.[80][81] Pur Dil Khan seized the Bala Hissar while the Barakzais led by him looted the palace, leaving Ayub Shah's son Ismail Mirza Durrani killed in the process. Ayub Shah was publicly humiliated by being paraded on a donkey, ransomed, and exiled to India. The Durranis were left helpless for they had no army, nor did they have coherent tribal support nor any ability to enforce authority.[79]

The deposition of Ayub Shah Durrani marked the end of the Durrani Empire and end of Durrani rule in Afghanistan, even though the Durranis continued to rule in Herat as a separate dominion under Mahmud Shah Durrani and his son Kamran Mirza Durrani, leaving the Barakzai heirs of Hajji Jamal Khan to be the rulers of Kandahar and Kabul,[79] and later in Herat from 1857 to 1863.[82] Habibullah Khan would be the next titular head of Afghanistan, marking the beginning of Barakzai rule in Afghanistan.[83]

Durrani insurgency

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Shuja Shah Durrani (centered) with his sons Timur Mirza (left) and Safdar Jang Mirza (right), accompanied by his vizier Mullah Shakur (far right)

The Durranis led by the former king Shuja Shah Durrani, backed by the British[84] and the Sikhs,[85] later fell into an insurgency to seize the Afghan throne for themselves in the Kandahar Expedition[86] and during the First Anglo-Afghan War, especially among his sons Fateh Jang Durrani and Shahpur Shah Durrani.[87] Shuja Shah would be initially successful after conquering Kandahar[88] and Kabul,[89] but this would be met with an end after the restoration of the Barakzai dynasty under Dost Mohammad Khan backed by his son Mohammad Akbar Khan,[90][91] following the assassination of Shuja Shah[92] and the deposition of Fateh Jang.[93][94] This would also lead to Mohammad Akbar Khan being the de facto head of state, ruling under Shahpur Shah's name until the arrival and restoration of Dost Mohammad Khan to the throne, similarly to how his father ruled under Ali Shah Durrani's name and how Mohammad Azim Khan ruled under Ayub Shah Durrani's name.[95]

The Durranis were not only expelled from Kandahar and Kabul, but also from Herat after Yar Mohammad Khan of the Alakozai tribe assassinated and deposed Kamran Shah Durrani in early 1842.[96] The Durrani kingdom still ceased to exist in Herat, despite not being ruled by the Durrani dynasty.[97] Following Yar Mohammad's death on 11 June 1851, his son Said Mohammad Khan was deposed by Mohammad Yusuf Mirza Durrani, the grandson of Firuz Shah Durrani, in September 1855. However, the Durrani comeback was cut short due to the Second Herat War, in which Mohammad Yusuf Mirza declared his kingdom a vassal state of the British Empire,[98] to which he was then betrayed and handed over to Iran by his vizier Isa Khan Bardurrani who later surrendered on 25 October 1856.[82]

When Mohammad Afzal Khan's grip on power was weak after becoming Emir during the Afghan Civil War (1863–1869) on 10 May 1866, conspiracies and resistance emerged, especially among his nephew Mohammad Rafiq Khan, who had written a letter to Shahpur Shah, offering him to return from Ludhiana and ascend to the Afghan throne, but Rafiq was later executed as an act of treason.[99]

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ also known as the Great Afghan War, Unrest in the Afghan Realm, Durrani Civil War, and the Durrani Interregnum.
    • Pashto: افغان کورنۍ جنگ, romanized: Afğān Koranəi Jang
    • Persian: جنگ داخلی افغان, romanized: Jang-i Dākhilī-yi Afğān
  2. ^ Persian: شاه در دران, romanized: Shāh Durr-i Durrān [ʃɑː(ʱ) d̪ʊɾ.ɾɪ d̪ʊɾ.ɾɑ́ːn]

Citations

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  1. ^ Nejatie 2017, p. 334.
  2. ^ Dupree 1980, p. 333.
  3. ^ Mehta 2005, p. 246.
  4. ^ Barfield 2010, p. 98.
  5. ^ Lee 2018, p. 106.
  6. ^ Nejatie 2017, p. 60.
  7. ^ Lee 2018, p. 80.
  8. ^ Gregorian 2013, pp. 29–33.
  9. ^ Barfield 2010, pp. 66–71.
  10. ^ Gregorian 2013, pp. 34–36.
  11. ^ Lee 2018, pp. 145–146.
  12. ^ Lee 2018, p. 148.
  13. ^ Singh 1959, p. 148.
  14. ^ Hazarah et al. 2012, p. 145–146.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Malleson 1879, pp. 300–301.
  16. ^ Lee 2018, p. 155.
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Lee 2018, p. 158.
  18. ^ Malleson 1879, pp. 302.
  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Malleson 1879, p. 303.
  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Hazarah et al. 2012, p. 79.
  21. ^ Kuhzad 1950, p. 19.
  22. ^ Malleson 1879, p. 300-301.
  23. ^ Malleson 1879, pp. 303–304.
  24. ^ Malleson 1879, pp. 304.
  25. ^ Fasa'i et al. 1972, p. 69.
  26. ^ Noelle-Karimi 2014, p. 147.
  27. ^ Lee 2018, pp. 160–161.
  28. ^ Malleson 1879, pp. 305–306.
  29. ^ Malleson 1879, p. 306.
  30. ^ Jump up to: a b Malleson 1879, p. 307.
  31. ^ Malleson 1879, p. 309.
  32. ^ Malleson 1879, p. 312.
  33. ^ Malleson 1879, p. 313.
  34. ^ Gupta 1991, p. 298.
  35. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 210.
  36. ^ Jump up to: a b Sykes 1940, p. 384.
  37. ^ Sykes 1940, pp. 383–384.
  38. ^ Lee 2018, p. 164.
  39. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 27.
  40. ^ Lee 2018, p. 165.
  41. ^ Lee 2018, p. 166.
  42. ^ Sykes 1940, p. 385.
  43. ^ Sykes 1940, pp. 384–385.
  44. ^ Lee 2018, p. 175.
  45. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 11.
  46. ^ Sykes 1940, pp. 385–386.
  47. ^ Kuhzad 1950, p. 23.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b Sykes 1940, p. 386.
  49. ^ Husain 2018, p. 7.
  50. ^ Lee 2018, p. 170.
  51. ^ Sykes 1940, p. 388.
  52. ^ Adamec 1972, p. 296.
  53. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 27.
  54. ^ Tanner 2009, p. 125.
  55. ^ Husain 2018, p. 23.
  56. ^ Husain 2018, p. 25.
  57. ^ Jump up to: a b Lee 2018, p. 176.
  58. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 9.
  59. ^ Nelson 1976, p. 24.
  60. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lee 2018, p. 181.
  61. ^ Lee 2018, p. 161.
  62. ^ Lee 2018, p. 182.
  63. ^ Gupta 1991, p. 171.
  64. ^ Lee 2018, pp. 178–179.
  65. ^ Lee 2018, p. 178.
  66. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 55.
  67. ^ Ferrier 1858, pp. 151–156.
  68. ^ Kaye 1857, pp. 111–112.
  69. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 11.
  70. ^ Sykes 1940, p. 391.
  71. ^ Lee 2018, p. 179.
  72. ^ Sykes 1940, p. 392.
  73. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 10.
  74. ^ Sykes 1940, pp. 392–393.
  75. ^ Lall 1960, p. 25.
  76. ^ Lee 2018, p. 184.
  77. ^ Stewart 2011, p. 241.
  78. ^ Gardner 1898, p. 307.
  79. ^ Jump up to: a b c Lee 2018, p. 185.
  80. ^ Kuhzad 1950, p. 59.
  81. ^ Noelle-Karimi 1997, p. 12.
  82. ^ Jump up to: a b Noelle-Karimi 2014, p. 144.
  83. ^ Lee 2018, pp. 321–322.
  84. ^ Adamec 2011, p. 109.
  85. ^ Cunningham 2002, pp. 340–350.
  86. ^ Lee 2018, p. 205.
  87. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 10.
  88. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 152.
  89. ^ Dalrymple 2013, p. 156.
  90. ^ Hopkirk 1992, pp. 263–264.
  91. ^ Adamec 2011, p. 21.
  92. ^ Husain 2018, pp. 304–306.
  93. ^ Lee 2018, p. 295.
  94. ^ Dalrymple 2013, pp. 316–317.
  95. ^ Dalrymple 2013, pp. 11–12.
  96. ^ Noelle-Karimi 1997, pp. 4–5.
  97. ^ Lee 1996, p. 116.
  98. ^ Standish 1966, p. 28.
  99. ^ Lee 2018, p. 327.

Sources

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